The ancient church,
in time and context.

Nero: persecution at Rome

Localized persecution after the fire of Rome; distinguish from later empire-wide measures.

Nero (r. 54–68)

Destruction of Jerusalem

Roman forces destroy Jerusalem and the temple, reshaping the context of Jewish and Christian history.

Titus; Vespasian (r. 69–79)

Clement of Rome

Appeals to Corinth for unity, order, and respect for appointed leaders. The marker dates the letter, not his lifespan.

Apostolic Fathers

Bridge between the apostolic era and the later apologists. This teaching window is not the lifespan of each writer.

Barnabas; Clement; Ignatius; Polycarp; Papias; Hermas

Epistle of Barnabas

Anonymous writing interpreting Israel’s Scriptures allegorically; not generally attributed to Paul’s companion Barnabas.

Didache

Early church manual: Two Ways, baptism, fasting, prayer, Eucharist, hospitality, church officers, and watchfulness. Dating is approximate.

Polycarp of Smyrna

Bishop, letter writer, and martyr; connects the apostolic generation with Irenaeus. Some chronologies date his martyrdom later. The displayed band begins at 100.

Polycarp; Irenaeus

Hermas · The Shepherd

Visions, commands, and parables focused on repentance, holiness, and the church. Composition dates are approximate.

Docetism

Christ’s real flesh and suffering are denied or diminished. Ignatius insists upon a real incarnation.

Ignatius (opponent)

Clarification: Movement bands show an illustrative period of prominence, not exact beginnings and endings.

Ebionism

Jewish-Christian groups associated with law observance and rejection of Christ’s pre-existence; some accounts describe adoption at baptism. Beliefs varied.

Known through Irenaeus and other opponents

Clarification: Ebionism and Cerinthianism are related study comparisons, not identical movements.

Platonism

Intelligible reality distinguished from the changing sensible world; transcendence and Logos language create points of contact and tension.

Plato (427–347 BC)

Clarification: Bands show influence on the early church, not the origin or end of these schools.

Aristotelianism

Categories, logic, causation, and attention to the natural world shape the intellectual setting of Christian theology.

Aristotle (384–322 BC)

Stoicism

Virtue, reason, providence, and living according to nature. Stoic divine reason differs from the Christian incarnate Word.

Zeno of Citium; Marcus Aurelius

Justin Martyr

Christian philosopher; First Apology addressed to Antoninus Pius, c. 155. Martyred in Rome.

Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161); Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180)

Ignatius of Antioch

Letters on the journey to martyrdom stress unity and the real flesh and suffering of Christ. Chronology is disputed.

Ignatius

Papias of Hierapolis

Collected traditions about the Lord; known largely through quotations of his Expositions. Death traditionally placed around 155.

Gnosticism

Diverse systems promising saving knowledge, often depreciating material creation. Irenaeus answers with one Creator and the unity of Scripture and redemption.

Valentinus; Basilides; Irenaeus (opponent)

Clarification: The glossary gives a study shorthand, not a description of every Gnostic group.

Irenaeus of Lyons

Bishop from c. 177; Against Heresies answers Gnosticism. Your reading notes connect his account of the Son with Calvin, Institutes 1.13.27.

Polycarp

Tertullian

Latin apologist. Against Praxeas develops one substance and three persons against modalism. Supported the New Prophecy / Montanist movement.

Praxeas (opponent)

Apologists

Defend Christianity against pagan objections and doctrinal error. Individual careers extend beyond this teaching window, especially Origen and Cyprian.

Justin; Irenaeus; Tertullian; Cyprian; Origen

Monarchianism · two branches

Both prioritize God’s unity. Dynamic/adoptionist: Jesus is a man empowered or adopted by God. Modalistic: Father, Son, and Spirit are modes of one person.

Theodotus; Paul of Samosata; Noetus; Sabellius

Clarification: Paul of Samosata belongs with dynamic monarchianism, not Sabellian modalism.

Origen of Alexandria

Prolific commentator and compiler of the Hexapla. Influential allegorical exegesis and problematic subordinationist tendencies. Tortured during the Decian persecution; died afterward.

Decius

Clarification: Your notes say c. 250; usual chronology places death c. 253/254.

Dynamic / adoptionist monarchianism

Jesus is human and specially empowered or adopted by God, rather than the eternal divine Son incarnate. Theodotus associates adoption with baptism.

Theodotus of Byzantium; Paul of Samosata

Modalistic / Sabellian monarchianism

Treats Father, Son, and Spirit as modes, collapsing eternal personal distinctions.

Noetus; Sabellius; Tertullian (opponent)

Cyprian of Carthage

Bishop from c. 249; opposed Novatian and permitted restoration of the lapsed with repentance and discipline. Executed under Valerian in 258.

Cornelius; Novatian

Plotinus & Neoplatonism

The One, Intellect (Nous), and Soul; emanation from the source and return through purification and contemplation. Neoplatonism arises in the 3rd century and continues afterward.

Plotinus; Porphyry

Alexander Severus

Relatively favorable setting for Christians in your notes; Julius Africanus associated with his court. Imperial favor does not imply Christian conversion.

Julius Africanus (c. 160–240)

Philip the Arab

Precedes Decius during relative peace for the church.

Decian persecution

Empire-wide sacrifice requirement leads to coercion, prison, torture, and death. Certificates of sacrifice and restoration of the lapsed become major church questions.

Decius (r. 249–251); Origen; Cyprian

Novatianism

Rigorist schism over absolution and restoration after grave post-baptismal sin, especially apostasy under persecution. Roman schism and excommunication in 251.

Novatian; Cornelius; Cyprian

Clarification: Novatian’s martyrdom under Valerian in 258 is traditional but uncertain. Cyprian’s execution in 258 is securely attested. Movement continues beyond the displayed band.

Valerianic persecution

Targets worship and clergy, then escalates to executions. Cyprian dies in 258; Gallienus ends persecution in 260.

Valerian (r. 253–260); Gallienus (r. 253–268; sole 260–268)

Peace & warrior emperors

Relative peace after Gallienus, though local hostility persists. Aurelian promotes Sol Invictus in 274.

Claudius II Gothicus (268–270); Aurelian (270–275)

Constantine

Acclaimed by troops in 306; subsequently accepts Caesar rank. Rules West after 312; sole emperor after 324. Baptized shortly before death in 337.

Hosius of Corduba; Eusebius of Caesarea

Clarification: Course uses c. 280 for birth; c. 272 is a common reference date.

Diocletian

Reforms imperial government through the tetrarchy: senior Augusti and junior Caesars. His final years bring the Great Persecution.

Maximian; Galerius; Constantius I

Athanasius

Attends Nicaea as Alexander’s deacon; bishop of Alexandria from 328. Defends the full deity of the Son through five exiles.

Alexander; Eusebius of Nicomedia (opponent)

Great Persecution

Churches and Scriptures destroyed; clergy imprisoned; sacrifices demanded. Galerius grants toleration in 311. Eastern persecution continues under Maximinus Daia until 313.

Diocletian; Maximian; Galerius; Maximinus Daia

Clarification: Severity and end dates vary by region. Galerius—not Valerian—was Diocletian’s Caesar.

Donatism

North African schism over Caecilian’s consecration and alleged traditors. Does a minister’s unfaithfulness invalidate ordination or sacraments? Augustine opposes this claim.

Caecilian; Majorinus; Donatus; Augustine

Clarification: Roots in Diocletian’s persecution, organized split in 311; continues after 411. Reading notes connect Gregory’s baptism oration with baptism’s independence from the minister’s personal status.

Milvian Bridge & conversion

Constantine defeats Maxentius and associates victory with the Christian God. Turning point in public allegiance; the nature and development of his conversion are debated.

Constantine; Maxentius

Agreement of Milan

Constantine and Licinius establish religious toleration and restoration of confiscated property. Christianity is permitted, not yet the official imperial religion.

Constantine; Licinius (r. 308–324)

Arianism & the Arian controversy

Arius denies the Son’s eternity and equality of divine essence. Post-Nicene parties are diverse; the conflict continues long after 325.

Arius (c. 256–336); Alexander; Athanasius; Eusebius of Nicomedia

Nicaea I

Affirms that the Son is begotten, not created, and of the same divine essence as the Father. Rejects Arian teaching; also addresses discipline and Easter.

Constantine (convener); Hosius; Alexander; Athanasius (deacon); Eusebius of Caesarea; Eusebius of Nicomedia; Arius (teaching judged)

Clarification: Athanasius was not yet bishop; his major leadership develops after this council.

Constantinople dedicated

Constantine dedicates his new imperial capital.

Basil the Great of Caesarea

Cappadocian Father; bishop from 370. On the Holy Spirit defends the Spirit’s deity; pastoral and charitable work accompanies theology.

Gregory Nazianzen; Gregory of Nyssa

Clarification: Died before Constantinople 381: influential predecessor, not attendee. Notes approximate death as c. 380.

Gregory Nazianzen

Cappadocian Father, “The Theologian.” Five Theological Orations defend the Trinity. Briefly presides at Constantinople 381. Reading notes highlight equal deity and baptism in the Triune name.

Basil; Gregory of Nyssa

Gregory of Nyssa

Cappadocian Father; Basil’s younger brother. Bishop, participant at Constantinople, and defender of Nicene theology against Eunomius.

Basil; Gregory Nazianzen; Eunomius

Constantine’s sons

Constans supports Nicenes; Constantius II favors anti-Nicene settlements and repeatedly exiles Athanasius.

Constantine II (337–340); Constans (337–350); Constantius II (337–361)

Antioch · Dedication Council

Eastern bishops issue several creeds that avoid Nicene homoousios. The Dedication Creed calls the Son the exact image of the Father’s essence.

Eusebius of Nicomedia; Flacillus of Antioch; eastern bishops; Constantius II (imperial setting)

Clarification: Course: “replaced homoousios with homoiousios.” More precisely, 341 omits homoousios; explicit Homoiousian party language is especially associated with Ancyra 358.

Sardica

Eastern and western bishops split over participation of the deposed Athanasius and Marcellus.

Hosius; Athanasius; Marcellus; Constans; Constantius II

Apollinarianism

The divine Logos replaces Christ’s human rational mind/spirit. Gregory argues that redemption requires assumption of complete humanity. Condemned at Constantinople.

Apollinaris of Laodicea; Gregory Nazianzen (opponent)

Augustine of Hippo

Opposes Donatism; writes City of God after Rome’s sack. Included for connections in your notes.

Donatists; Alaric

Julian’s Hellenic revival

Attempts to restore traditional pagan religion, reorganizing pagan institutions and restricting Christian influence.

Julian (331/332–363)

Clarification: Requested “310” is a date error; lecture notes give 361.

Valens

Supports Homoian Christianity and pressures Nicene bishops, including Basil.

Valentinian I (West, 364–375); Basil

Theodosius I

Edict of Thessalonica in 380 establishes Nicene Christianity as the imperial religious standard; convenes Constantinople in 381.

Gratian; Valentinian II

Constantinople I

Reaffirms Nicaea; rejects Arian, Pneumatomachian, and Apollinarian teachings. Associated creed confesses the Holy Spirit more fully.

Theodosius I (convener); Meletius (first president); Gregory Nazianzen (next president); Nectarius; Gregory of Nyssa

Clarification: Basil died in 379. The 381 creed has procession from the Father; filioque is a later Western addition, absent from the 325 creed too.

Nestorius

Bishop of Constantinople from 428. Dispute over Theotokos and Christ’s unity provokes Cyril’s response and Ephesus.

Cyril of Alexandria

Clarification: Whether Nestorius himself taught the later caricature of two separate persons is disputed.

Sack of Rome

Alaric’s Visigoths sack Rome. Augustine begins City of God in 413 amid debate over Christianity and Rome’s fate.

Alaric; Honorius (r. 393–423); Augustine

Nestorian controversy

Question: who is the personal subject of Christ’s human and divine acts? Cyril defends one Son; Theotokos safeguards the identity of the one born of Mary.

Nestorius; Cyril; John of Antioch

Ephesus

Deposes Nestorius; defends Christ’s personal unity and Theotokos. Cyril and John of Antioch later reconcile in the Formula of Reunion (433).

Theodosius II (convener); Cyril (president); Memnon; Nestorius (deposed); John of Antioch (rival assembly); Celestine I (represented by legates)

Eutychianism

Associated with Eutyches: Christ’s humanity is compromised after union. Chalcedon guards the continuing integrity of both natures.

Eutyches; Flavian; Dioscorus; Leo I

Clarification: Do not equate all non-Chalcedonian / Miaphysite churches with Eutyches’s position.

Ephesus II

Restores Eutyches and deposes Flavian; repudiated by Chalcedon.

Dioscorus; Eutyches; Flavian; Theodosius II

Chalcedon

One and the same Son in two natures: without confusion, change, division, or separation. Receives Leo’s Tome; rejects division and confusion of Christ.

Marcian; Pulcheria; Anatolius; Paschasinus (Leo’s legate); Leo I (Tome, not present); Dioscorus (deposed); Flavian (posthumously vindicated)

Clarification: Leontius of Byzantium is a later interpreter, not a council leader.

Western imperial rule ends

Odoacer deposes Romulus Augustulus: a conventional landmark for the end of the Western Roman Empire. Rome’s decline is a long process, not a single event. The Eastern Roman Empire continues.

Odoacer; Romulus Augustulus

Leontius of Byzantium

Later Christological explanation: Christ’s humanity has no separate personal subject, but subsists in the person of the eternal Son.

Leontius

Gregory I of Rome

The closing landmark of the main course timeline. As imperial government in the West recedes and Rome faces war, plague, and Lombard pressure, Gregory takes a major pastoral, administrative, and diplomatic role. Life c. 540–604.

Gregory I (“the Great”)

Clarification: “The last good pope” is the lecture notes’ characterization attributed to John Calvin, not a neutral historical title. The seventh-century wills controversy is a later extension.

Monothelitism

Proposes one will in Christ as a settlement of Christological disputes. Opponents insist that full humanity requires a human natural will.

Heraclius (r. 610–641); Sergius; Honorius I

Dyothelitism / diothelitism

Christ has two natural wills and operations, divine and human, united without opposition in one person.

Maximus the Confessor (c. 580–662); Martin I; Sophronius

Constantinople III

Affirms two natural wills and operations; condemns Monothelitism. Included to finish the one-will/two-wills dimension beyond the main course period.

Constantine IV (convener); Agatho (letter and legates); George of Constantinople; Macarius of Antioch (opponent); Maximus and Martin I (earlier defenders, deceased)